Cases of Age Discrimination in the Workplace Case Study

Cases of Age Discrimination in the Workplace - Case Study Example The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 is legislated in order to protect the rights of the employees against discrimination on the basis of age. As defined by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, â€Å"age discrimination involves treating someone less favorably because of his age†. In accordance with this legislation, the employers must be careful in handling their staff and take into consideration this law particularly when hiring, firing, paying, giving particular work tasks, granting promotions, etc to the employees. Another related law is the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 which particularly protects the rights of the employees to acquire their benefits from their employers.Criswell and Starley, the plaintiffs, filed complaints against Western Air Lines arguing that the airlines’ standard requiring under-age-60 qualification for their pilots violated ADEA. Both the plaintiffs after celebrating their 6oth birthdays applied for rea ssignments as flight engineers the application was denied due to the reasons that the plaintiffs were members of Western Airlines’ retirement plan. In the jury, the defendant attests the complaint explaining the standards as based on BFOQ or bonafide occupational qualification. The airline argued for Western’s enterprise for their passengers’ safe transportation. However, the court’s verdict favors the complainants stating that Westerns’ BFOQ is insufficient as basis of the standard.... In the jury, the defendant attest the complaint explaining the standards as based on BFOQ or bonafide occupational qualification (procon.org). The airline argued for Western’s enterprise for their passengers’ safe transportation. However, the court’s verdict favors the complainants stating that Westerns’ BFOQ is insufficient as basis of the standard. Western Airline appealed again and so the Supreme Court granted review of the case. The hearing follows as the jury reviewed petitioners appeal as backed up by the said company’s intention public safety. In the end however, the petitioners’ claim for implementing under-age-60 standard was regarded reasonable and thus, the case became a landmark for revising ADEA adding BFOQ as exception to the age discrimination act (procon.org). In this case, we see that the court has carefully weighed the respondents and the petitioners claim regarding Age Discrimination Act of 1967. Thus, I agree to the decisi on of evaluating the Airline as exempted kind of business in implementing ADEA. Hazen Paper v. Biggins The plaintiff named Walter Biggins filed a suit against his employer and its two owners accusing them of age discrimination as grounds for his termination (91-1600), 507 U.S. 604 (1993). Biggins, a sixty-two year-old employee, was fired by Hazen Paper Company after almost ten years of employment. Biggins claimed that his termination was clearly unlawful as he was seemingly fired intentionally just weeks before his tenth anniversary in the company; thus, consequently denying him of the company’s pension benefits. In order to prove Beggins’ claim of disparate treatment, he must provide evidence that he was terminated due to his age. However, the

Black Rage-Book Report Essay Example for Free

Black Rage-Book Report Essay The pages of human history daubed in bloodshed and thickly coated with ethnic, racial conflicts ask a crying question. How to make this Planet Earth heaven -like? The answer is simple and direct. Eyes full of understanding, heart full of love and the life that refuses conflicts—these alone are enough! When an individual or a people of a particular race are constantly nagged and abused, condemned and ostracized by the society, they become bitter and cynical individuals. Heartfelt care and concern, an understanding approach and tender regard for their feelings are necessary pre-requisites to heal their inner wounds. Adequate opportunities need to be created for their ‘reformation’ and ‘rehabilitation’ into the mainstream of the society. The authors feel that it is not an easy task. Each and every molecule of the Negro race is surcharged with the hidden grudge as for the inhuman treatment meted out to them in all walks of life, from the cradle to the grave and from the womb to the tomb and this process continued for centuries. They were branded from birth as ‘niggers. ’ This insult on their personality is difficult to condone. Brief summary of the book: This is a classic work on black identity. This is also criticized as one of the sexiest books. Slavery is no ordinary crime against humanity. The book explains the race relations and its dynamics in the day to day living of the blacks vs. whites. How at each step of the ladder the blacks were pulled down, how they were made to stumble at deliberately created hurdles by the whites, how slavery dynamics deeply impact the cross-racial sexual relationships etc. It is one thing to have freedom and protection for the essential human dignity of the individual legally. It is good to have uniform constitutional rights for whites and blacks. But what mattes is the interpretation of the laws and their applicability to the ground level situations, concerning the blacks. The book is an authentic source of inspiration to the educated younger generation of blacks, and for the African psychologists of the day. The book cites case studies and they are properly dealt with. The point by point analysis of the â€Å"intra-psychic† dynamics of Black life in every day America is extremely informative and an eye-opener. Blacks, in many parts of the world where the whites were the dominating community, suffered, and in USA they suffered intensely. The authors are psychiatrists by profession and they are eminently suited to treat this subject. The inner conflicts and the desperation of back life, how they carry on with their back to the wall existence—all these have been highlighted, with the zeal of pursuing the truth. As the black race is exposed to various social situations related to the individual growth through education, employment, achievement of status in life, the intra-racial problems have begun to crop up with great intensity. The authors cite the case of an educated school teacher, marrying a laborer. They explain: â€Å"†¦She was embarrassed by his poor education. He felt that she and her friends were phony and that she was preoccupied with maintaining senseless appearances. Their mutual hostility led to verbal and later physical assaults. Divorce was the result. This pattern is so common in Negro marriages that it deserves special study, which might shed light on the broader problems of how in America choice of mate and marriage in general is influenced by a persons blackness. †(p. 75) The authors put forth strong arguments that black people living in a racist, white dominated society have suffered and are suffering psychological pressure by the effects of racist oppression. This sometimes, has the telling effect in on the day to day disposition and black people act in unpredictable manner. The thesis of the book: Will the country ever awake in to that heaven of freedom, and when it will be free from the division of narrow domestic walls created by race prejudices? What you do to mitigate the mental barrier of racial discrimination on so many counts is not important. How you do, what you do is indeed important. More acts and legislations have helped to create a stir in the minds of whites and blacks. But the problem eludes permanent solution. This is so, because the feeling of superiority within the minds of the whites has to change. When the thought process will change, the action process will also change! When the thoughts are changed, the mind is changed; when the mind is changed, the man is changed; when the man is changed, the society is changed; when the society is changed, the Nation is changed. Then only we can way that plenty and prosperity engulfs USA, not otherwise! The contents and arguments in the book contain too much sex, much more than required by the literary standards. But some times, these issues are beyond the control of the authors. Firstly the book must sell. This is the prime objective of the publisher. Fortunately or unfortunately, sex sells. If it is handled well, it sells well. This could be one of the reasons for the extra dose of sex in the book—this may not be as well! This book has about 230 pages with 10 chapters, Who’s angry, the shadow of the past, achieving womanhood, acquiring manhood, marriage and love, character traits, the â€Å"Promise† of education, mental illness and treatment, and how come there’s so much hate and black rage. In a nutshell, the contents of the book discuss and analyze the bitter past of slavery in USA, the tension-ridden race relations in USA today, and the future of black and white race relations which have the possibilities to turn worst, on the slightest provocation, when the black race is making its presence felt strongly, in political, social, and economic spheres. In sports, blacks are dominating! The blacks accepted the domination of the white race-will the whites accept the domination of the black race in times to come? Will the law of divine retribution work in this context? Identify the evidence used by the author to support his/ her thesis That which is evident requires no introduction, elaboration, or appreciation. Light is bright and it is evident. Milk is white and it is evident. Simply say black race in America, and everything is evident. The saga of suffering of the Negro race, the era of slavery, violence and cruelty to subdue their legitimate aspirations rotates on the curtain of one’s mind. The authors of Black Rage do not mince words when it comes to condemning the atrocities committed on the black race. â€Å"The voice of black America has been heard in the explosions of Watts, Newark, and Detroit,† they warn. (p. 3) They assert their aspiration in strongest terms. â€Å"Black people continue to revolt against laws and customs that are deadly and humiliating†¦Aggression leaps from wounds inflicted and ambitions spiked. It grows out of oppression and capricious cruelty. †(p. 3). The younger generation of Negroes is not willing to wait and accept ‘the tactful handling of the situation’ by the whites when their interests matter. The white race is not willing to travel in the boat where the rudder is controlled by the black. The blacks are aware, by their bitter past experiences that the whites will go to any extent when their own interests matter. This causes more frustration and apprehension in the black community and adversely affects their psyche. The example cited in the text is that of Jimmy, a twelve year old boy. â€Å"His face was jet-black, and his expressions ranged from somber to sad. Whether relating stories of home, school, or the streets, he disguised his true feelings. At twelve he had learned one of his first lessonsalways play it cool. As much as possible, he worked to hide his inner life. One day he stared long and hard at his fist and said: I want to hit a white man. †(p. 59) State your own opinion and ideas about this book. The book contains tough opinions about the white race. To tell a black youngster to forget the past, say that he is constitutionally protected and enjoys equal rights as applicable to whites or any ethnic group is as good as telling him a story. The suffering of the Negro race is something very special and closely linked to the destiny of America. The black can condone the past; they can not ignore or forget it. The whites are not obliging the blacks by the present stance of understanding them. They have no other alternative. They must accept their newfound social position—equal in every respect as compared to the black people and it is their duty to say that the black-brother is first among the equal. They must attempt and secure the transformation within. The writers put it crisply and authoritatively. â€Å"After all, the thoughts begin, the Negro is also an American and if he is different it is only matter of degree. Cliches are brought forth and there is a lengthy recitation of the names of famous Negroes. Long association has bred feelings of familiarity which masquerade as knowledge. But there remain puzzles about black people; all is not understood; something is missing. †(p. 23) â€Å"It is better to have a world united than a world divided; but it is better to have a world divided, than a world destroyed,† said Sir Winston Churchill at the time of II World War. Presently, does this quote apply to the solution for the race problem in USA? USA will never be divided in geographical terms, the Constitution of USA is strong enough, the political leaders have enough foresight, but the example given in the book is shocking and is the definite pointer, how the division of the hearts is complete. How Come Theres So Much Hate? â€Å"When the man died, his wife of forty years was pitied by her friends. The widow was a stern New Englander; her dead husband was a black. In spite of strong social disapproval of their marriage, they had raised children and prospered. There had been some discord between them, but they handled it discreetly and the children had never heard them comment on racial matters. Even when a racial incident was prominent in the news, not a word was said about it. The children assumed that their mother had long since accepted the realities of marriage to a black man. They were completely unprepared for her words when her husband died: Thank God that nigger is gone! (p. 181) Spirituality, not religion, seems to be the only answer to this vexed problem of race relations. Once a human being crosses the mind barrier, all differences all tensions, cease! Mind is a bundle of negative and positive thoughts. The usual methods of suppressing the thoughts and emotions are not going to bring permanent peace. If the Negro race has to surrender at any point, it has got to be the dynamic surrender, of a supreme and brave human being. They should not accept the supremacy of the white race, nor demand the pound of flesh for the historical misdeeds of the whites. If the revengeful attitude persists, it will take them and the Nation nowhere. If the Nation does not survive how will the black and white races survive?

A Christian World Viewpoint Essay -- christian, viewpoint, god

Having never considered much about world views until after visiting a Christian world view camp, I wanted to know more about mine. As a Christian, naturally I would have a Christian world view, but I did not really know what that meant. I did not think much about the nature of God, or man, or even the cause of evil and suffering. Although I did not doubt my Christianity, I only doubted my knowledge of it, and ability to defend the Christian faith. I knew the root of all suffering came from sin, and that since Adam and Eve sinned, all man is burdened with sin. However, people are able to have a loving relationship with God if we trust in Jesus. Often time’s people portray God as a distant, but extremely powerful being that only smites the evil and mildly rewards the righteous. People holding that view could not be more incorrect. In James 4:8 it says, â€Å"Draw close to God, and he will draw close to you,† and in Romans 5:8 it says, â€Å"But God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us.† These verses do not show God as a cold hard sky dwelling creature, but a loving personal God that desires a personal relationship with all people. â€Å"God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning--the sixth day.† (Genesis 1:31) God created the universe good, and good it remains. Since humans sinned, not animals, or planets, or stars, naturally, humans are inherently evil, not the universe. However, man has corrupted this world with evil, so when Jesus returns, He has promised to create a new heaven and earth. â€Å"For it is from within, out of a person’s heart, that evil thoughts come—sexual immorality, theft, murder, (Mark 7:21)†. Even though God created man as... ...g that has now claimed your allegiance. You have been set free from sin and have become slaves to righteousness. (Romans 6:17-18)† Works Cited 2 Corinthians. BibleGateway.com: A Searchable Online Bible in over 100 Versions and 50 Languages. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Nov. 2013. Genesis. BibleGateway.com: A Searchable Online Bible in over 100 Versions and 50 Languages. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2013. "James 4:8." Holy Bible: New International Version. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. N. pag. Print. John. BibleGateway.com: A Searchable Online Bible in over 100 Versions and 50 Languages. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2013. Mark. BibleGateway.com: A Searchable Online Bible in over 100 Versions and 50 Languages. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Nov. 2013. Romans. BibleGateway.com: A Searchable Online Bible in over 100 Versions and 50 Languages. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2013.

Eulogy for Father :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Father This is the last of three formal memorials for my father. The first was in the surroundings of his last years, at his country church in Virginia, among his family and neighbors. The second was in the surroundings of his first years, among the boxwoods in Murfreesboro, in the presence of a large number of his buried ancestors and a smaller number of his living descendants. Today we gather to remember the middle years of his life, the years at Harvard which he considered his greatest, and which many now consider Harvard's greatest. You, his students and friends from those years, know he was a man of many talents. He was a scholar; a statesman who could see things clearly to which others were blind; a man of deep religious sensitivity; a man of the soil. He was a fighter, a boxer in his college days, a battery commander in World War I, a man who fought and bred gamecocks all his life, and, above all, a man in the thick of controversy at home and war abroad for more than fifty years of public life. Yet he was also a man who cherished honorable peace and loved to commend to his students the stern but pacific words of Lincoln's Second Inaugural: â€Å"With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on...to achieve a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.† He was a devoted family man, not just for us, his blood family, but also for the larger family of his students, co-workers, and friends. He expected great things of us, as we did of him. He was a genius with words, a writer, a poet, a powerful orator, a master storyteller, a man who in a single encounter could move people to their foundations. This moving power was deeper than words. He retained it to the end, after he had lost his command of words, and the vivid recollections of a long-ago speech or conversation so common among those who have met him are more apt to be of his power and presence than of the words he used. My own most recurrent memory of him is completely nonverbal. It is the look in his eyes years ago in Virginia when he had put me on a bus to the city.

Indentured Servitude DBQ Essay

Due to the end of slavery, the demand for cheap labor in the Americas partnered with multiple peoples willing to leave their home countries to create an influx of indentured servants. These unfortunates, though seeking a better life, often ended up facing awful conditions for the duration of their contract. Document three shows the beginnings of indentured servitude, in a way. This document, a map, shows where all the indentured servants came from, with the two most prominent locations being China and India. Most of them ended up somewhere in the Caribbean, likely to raise cash crops like sugar. There is also a noticeable lack of indentured servants from European countries. This may be due to Europeans being the main ones who hired these servants, and they may not have had their fellow countrymen sign such a contract. It also may be due to racism; all the countries are either Asian or African, places where whites would be few and far between. Document four supports these ideas, with the only origin points the document notes are China, India, and Japan, with over a million indentured servants flowing into the Americas (or South Africa) in this time, most of whom came from India. Document nine shows just how many indentured servants there were. In Mauritius, just Indian indentured servants counted for seventy one percent of the population. That’s a lot. The document doesn’t even list indentured servants from other countries either. With just another nine percent of the population being in indentured servitude, there would be four servants for every truly free member of society in that area. Document six, another chart, shows how slavery and indentured servitude is related. In the early to mid-eighteen hundreds, the amount of former slaves steadily declined, as more and more indentured servants, specifically Indians, came into the country, rising from barely over a thousand in 1835 to almost eighty thousand by 1851, an eight thousand percent increase in just sixteen years. Document eight shows the life of an indentured servant. This document is written in a very â€Å"oh, woe is me† manner, the writer complaining about how terrible his life is. Then again, if I worked fifteen hour days without food breaks, I’d be pretty upset too. While he may be exaggerating to make his  plight seem more dire to the Protector of Immigrants, document seven shows that he may have a legitimate point. While this may not be the contract Ramana signed, I feel it’s safe to assume most of the contracts would be similar to this one, with Sundays off and only seven to ten hours of work on the other days. The document also specifically mentions the pay for those in servitude, with one shilling to grown men, and 2/3 of a shilling to women and minors. While I don’t know how much a shilling is worth, seeing as the servants get shelter, medicine, and three months of rations from whoever hired them, it stands to reason that they would be able to have enough coinage to be able to support themselves. Document five seems to support document eight though, with a European supervisor commanding Indian servants. This image makes indentured servitude look incredibly similar to slavery, especially due to the whip help in the supervisor’s hand. However, this treatment didn’t stop the flood of available immigrants; the same document shows over fifty newly arrived Indians, ready to start their lives in the New World. The final two documents, numbers one and two, show the British take on indentured servitude. Document one defends the idea of slavery, with the author stating that while it isn’t the best route for immigrants, it isn’t nearly as bad as slavery. He goes on to compare it to military service, basically saying that the servants are trained specifically to do their jobs. However, as a prominent British member of Britain’s colonies, it is likely that he owns or profits from indentured servants in some way. He wouldn’t speak out against it if it’s making him money. Document two is considerably more blunt, speaking of the need for foreign labor to turn a profit. The writer of this document seems to believe he’s far above indentured servants, as he talks of them as nothing more than resources, not actual people. He goes on to say how they’ll need more of servants as time goes on. The dispassionate and unattached way he speaks of the servants is profound; in fact, it’s almost as if he’s talking about how much coal one would need to keep a factory running. One missing document I would’ve liked would be from a former indentured servant, five to ten years after he was released from his contract. It would be interesting to see how they did in the New World once they were free. Another document I would’ve liked is one from one of the ship captains who transport the servants, comparing life he saw in their home countries to the lives they’d experience  in their new homes.

Spartan Military essays

Spartan Military essays I chose to do my final project on the military tactics, techniques, requirements, and lifestyle of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. When we discussed this topic in class, I was very interested in how much emphasis the Spartans put on the military. I wanted to learn more about this subject and also answer some of my own questions I had that we may not have covered in class. The word Sparta actually has two separate meanings, which contradict each other. The first meaning of the word is bravery, and the second is barren. I interpret the second meaning in the way that, the Spartan lifestyle was barren in that they focused solely on their military and not on all the other pleasures of life. The city-state of Sparta was located on the Peloponnesus, a peninsula just southwest of its rival state, Athens. Spartans looked at themselves as military powerhouses and all their discipline, from birth to adulthood, was directed toward war. Any child that was born with a deformity, mental illness, or that was physically handicapped was killed. Children first began military training at the age of seven. These boys were organized into small groups and those who were the most courageous were made captains. The boys slept in dormitories on hard beds, and ate black broth and porridge. They wore the simplest clothing and spent very little time learning music or literature. Each day they were drilled in gymnastics and military exercises. These boys were taught that retreat or surrender in battle was disgraceful and dishonorable. They learned to endure pain and hardship without complaint and to obey all orders without question. The boys were allowed to steal food to satisfy th eir hunger, but if they were caught they would be whipped. This was not done to promote dishonesty, but rather to develop slyness among the boys. It is said that a Spartan boy, who had stolen a fox for his dinner, would rather allow the fox to knaw on his f...

Pearl Harbor The Causes and the Aftermath

Pearl Harbor The Causes and the Aftermath Introduction The Pearl Harbor massacre is one of the many historical events that will forever remain in the annals of history for its significance as far as war betweens nations is concerned. This is because, the events of the war are not only important to the American history, but to the world history, for global nations have a lot to learn from its effects.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Pearl Harbor: The Causes and the Aftermath specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, the war between America and Japan has a lot of significance as concerns the world history primarily because, it gave World War II a great shift; a war that saw the destruction of many global communities. It is important to note here that, although previously before the Pearl Harbor attack there existed many wars between nations, the attack triggered U.S.’s anger, making it to engage itself fully in the war, a factor that contributed to the currently existing power equalities in the world (Rosenberg pp. 3-9). Many disagreements between leaders of these world â€Å"powerful† countries were major contributors to the onset of the war. The divisions were prevalent because of the discriminatory nature of opinions that different powerful countries shared. For example, in the struggle by these world powers to increases their wealth and areas of jurisdiction during the World War II, majority of them had to conquer areas they considered rich of resources they were missing in their countries. Such efforts to conquer specific regions demanded many power struggles whereby, the only way of winning was through joining pacts hence, the clear differentiations that existed between these word powers. Such differentiations led to the divided support that specific countries received where Japan was inclusive. For example, in its quest to fully rule China, Japan received a lot of opposition from America whereby, not only did Ame rica support China financially, but also it helped it improve its military prowess through provision of military aids. This in many ways triggered Japan and its affiliate counties’ anger leading to the planning of the attacks (National Park Service: U.S. Department of the Interior p.1). This paper will discuss concepts of the Pearl Harbor attack. In addition, it will discuss reasons behind the attacks and the attack’s aftermaths.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Source: National Park Service: U.S. Department of the Interior p.1 Background Information The attack was on one of America’s biggest naval base in Hawaii, a factor that marked the turning point as far World War II was concerned. The invasion took place on 7th December, 1941, an attack that Japan wanted to use as a mechanism of wrecking America’s military prowess. Although to some extent Japan achieved its goals, it never anticipated that such an attack could lead to its total destruction. This is because, although Japan succeeded in destroying this American naval base, subsequent retaliations from America saw its destruction; both in terms of properties and numerous lives. In addition, effects from such retaliations by America are evident even today in Japan, although the nation has advanced itself technologically and industrially. Critical analysis of the attack on the harbor clearly show that, in many ways America was one of the greatest impediment to Japan, as it sought to expand its control of some Asian regions. Therefore, because America was such an obstacle, Japan thought that, the only way of making its dream come true is by wrecking America’s military prowess, with little know how that, its destruction was on the way. On the other hand, through the attacks, Japan thought that, it could wreck the American fleet patterns, a factor that could render it a cha nce of advancing its economic prospects by venturing into the Dutch East Indies and other Asian regions. This is because it considered the region rich of many resources, which were essential in terms of boosting its war prowess, when it came to dealing with the United Kingdom and America, for they were its primary antagonists. Causalities from such a vicious attack were more four thousand, with more than two thousand dead American citizens and less than one hundred Japanese citizens. It was such a big blow to the entire American community primarily because, not only did it result to massive destruction of military property, but also it led to numerous deaths that resulted due to later aftermaths of the war as it endeavored to vengeance (Wohlstetter pp. 3-19).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Pearl Harbor: The Causes and the Aftermath specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, it is important to note that, to some extent America could have prevented such invasions had it established itself well. This is because, as research into the attack reveal, the American defense top organs had some know how on the awaiting tragedy, a fact that they failed to make sure its naval base in the Pearl Harbor was prepared for, incase Japan advanced such attacks. May be had the defense department communicated such impeding threats or likelihoods of attacks, the country could have avoided the blood shade that occurred during that period. In addition, it is also important to note that, Japan had organized well on how to launch the attacks, a factor that many attribute to America’s failure to defend itself. This is because, as America was busy engrossed in peace initiatives, Japan was preparing on breaking the talks and immediately launching the attacks without giving its antagonist a chance to organize itself (Mahar p.1). Reasons for the Attack In any conflict scenario, there has to exist many issues of co ntention among worrying communities, a fact that was not an exception in this war between America and Japan. In addition, it is important to note that, whether egocentric or for good gains, such wars result due to the need for one nation to dominate and rule over the other. This was the case in the Pearl Harbor attack, primarily because Japan wanted to outsmart America; a nation that was a great impediment towards its quest to overlook the Asian region, through enriching itself with ill acquired resources. As research studies suggest, the whole contention issue was as a result of a time concept and not the struggle to ensure international diplomacy reigns. That is, the existence of America is this region; Asia-Pacific, was not a subject of apprehension to Japan, but rather its main concern was to take over power as concerned the control of the region. It is important to note that, achievement of such expectations was one of the hardest things to achieve for Japan, because of the gre at powers that America had over this region (Rosenberg pp 35-45). On the other hand, the quest to control the Asia-Pacific region to some extent was cultural, because culturally Japan had one believe that is, it was mandatory for there to be a single ruler of the region; a plan they named â€Å"hakko ichiu† (Rymer Para. 2) Although many attribute such power controls as the main factor, which led to the attack, as Robinson (p.1) argues, to some extent, the whole war issue between America and Japan was historical. This is because prior to planning and executing of the attacks, there were many issues of contention between these two economic giants.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Such war backdates to 1930’s, when there was global economic recession that saw Japan suffer economically, as America progressed. In addition, America looked down upon Japan, as militia controlled some of its regions leading to the overexploitation of the rich Manchuria region. To counter such failures in its control, and in obeying the desire to expand its economic resources, Japan launched such attacks on the harbor in an endeavor to bring down America. On the other hand, it is important to note that, Japanese aggression may have resulted due restriction that America imposed on Japan via commercial treaties prior to 1940, as concerned the provision of natural and industrial resources. Such restrictions came in full application after the prohibition of scrap iron materials exchange and aviation fuel supply. The fact that, Japan bonded with Italy and Germany in the tripartite deal, made its relationship with America to further deteriorate. This is because the signing of such an agreement was a clear indication of Japan supporting the European war, a war that America took sides. Apart from such historical injustices and sanctions that were great obstacles to Japan’s development, there were many power struggles between these two nations. For example, prior to the Pearl Harbor attacks, America denied Japan recognition as concerned its occupancy of China. To condemn Japan’s occupancy, America gave China support, both financially and in terms of military provisions hence, igniting more anger from Japan and its allies. On the other hand, to disapprove Japan, America imposed more sanctions, in addition to the early embargoes that it had mounted on the Japanese state. As a mechanism of eliminating such sanctions and a sign of not accepting defeat, Japan organized such attacks. In addition, to Japan, such attacks were necessary, because Japan considered America an oppressing nation, due to the fact that, it refused to acknowledge other nations occu pancy in other countries, where as itself had exploited Philippines as the Spanish-American conflict raged. To disapprove America’s power controls as concerned the invasion of other countries, Japan sought to devastate its naval convoy, primary in the pacific region, for it was an obstacle to such exploitations. By attacking the American base, Japan thought that, recovery from such impacts was to take time, a fact that could guarantee them a chance of invading the countries it wanted (Robinson p.1). In addition to breaking the American power controls, another reason behind the attacks was the endeavor by the Japanese to demoralize America as concerned its superiority when it came to wars. Japan to some extent, achieved this goal because in the onset of 1941, there was a raging debate on whether America should engage itself in warfare or not. This divided the American citizenry, a fact that made Japan to attack, for it thought that it could paralyze America hence, win the war of control over the pacific region. It is important to note here that, to some level Japan had made a wrong assumption because such attacks led to its later destruction, for it was the only means of ending the war between the two countries. Another main reason behind the war was the clear signs of discriminations that certain American rulers imposed on the Japanese citizenry. Such discriminations were clear in the Roosevelt’s administration, for many took him as a racist primarily against the Japanese citizens in America. From the onset of his reign, Roosevelt had a discriminatory liking of the Chinese and a disliking tendency on the Japanese; a fact that many researches attribute to the nature of gains he received from the Chinese nation. On the other hand, his discriminatory tendency was prevalent on the way he treated the Germans. This is because; Roosevelt’s ruling orientation was contrary to Adolph Hitler’s ruling orientation; dictatorship hence, his favori tism for the Europeans; primary Britain. In his ruling, foreign policies were of little significance, a factor that contributed to the decline in personal relations to other world rulers of that time more so Germany and Italy. For example, during Germany’s quest to take over Lebensraum, through amalgamation with Britain and France, they opposed such quests, a factor that increased these countries enmity, because these countries were close allies of Japan. This to some extent proves that, although majority of individuals blame Japan for the onset of the war, to some extent what America was doing is a clear indication that they wanted war. However, to avoid blame hence, look for an excuse for attacking Japan, America had to use any means that was at its disposal to trigger an attack from Japan. In this regard, it is important to note that, actions by America might have been one main triggering factors as far as the war was concerned (Higgs Para. 6-12). The Attack’s After maths Although Japan succeeded in wrecking the American naval base, its achievements were short lived. This is because, such attacked triggered America’s anger, hence the use of bombs to destroy many Japanese cities. The effects of such retaliations are prevalent even today in Japan as it endeavors to improve its infrastructural and industrial sector. As a response to Japanese attacks, America launched efforts to track Japanese shipper fleet, something that never succeeded at first because of the minute numbers of American naval support. Although this was a deterring factor, as concerned revenge efforts, America still was determined to destroy Japan. In many ways, the war gave many other nations courage of threatening America, a factor that made its revenge mission even harder. For example, because of the attack, which led to the destruction of the naval fleet, Germany and Italy started their own hostilities towards America, a fact that many attribute to many historical indif ferences between these countries (McGraw-Hill Companies p.1). Source: McGraw-Hill Companies p.1 To counter the number of forces that were against America, America reorganized its military system, something that commenced with the recruitment of more military personnel. It is important to note here that, failure by Japan to mangle the fuel deport and repair amenities, gave America an added advantage of re-organizing its efforts to retaliate. Although this was the case, it is also crucial to note that, subsequent attacks by Japan; second and third, were aimed at destroying the two important facilities. However, because of the anticipated dangers that were associated with such attacks; revenge from the American carriers, Japan stopped its second and third mission hence, giving America an added advantage. After the re-organization and success in the efforts to salvage the remaining ships after the attack, America started to launch its revenge mission on Japan. Such revenges were in for m of attacks the Japanese troops, something that never succeeded at first. Although this was the case, America continued in its quest to outsmart Japan hence, leading to its first victorious raid of 1942; the Doolittle attack. In many ways, this marked the onset of the many later raids that America instigated against Japan. To avoid problems that were associated with short-range bombers, it used long-range ones, although it failed to achieve its goals of salvaging such bombers if they landed in China. In addition, because of such failures, America lost many of its crewmembers, due to the massive deaths that occurred. Such attacks, led to more extended attacks from Japan on American territories for example the Midway Islands. Many losses resulted from such attacks, with Japan loosing four of its best carriers and a good number of its citizens. Suffering of innocent civilians was prevalent, a factor that was of less concern to these warring nations primarily because, their main concer n was to defeat each other (Martin p.1). As the war raged, America’s control increased, as it endeavored to control the pacific region through taking control of many areas in the pacific region. To some extent, such captures were of little significance primary because, such captured islands could not give a firm base of launching its attacks. To ensure they captured an island that could guarantee them a chance of dealing with Japan properly, America through its military strived to capture the Iwo Jima Island, something that caused the demise of many American soldiers. It is crucial to note here that, such loses were of little significance to America, because finally in 1945, America took control of the island. Capturing of the island saw the destruction of Japanese resources through vicious attacks from America, because at least they had a firm base of launching its attacks. Although this was the case, Japan also never surrendered something that prompted America to capture it s Okinawa Island. Such an achievement was not easy and painless on the America, because out of it America lost approximately twelve thousand lives (D’Amato p. 1). Such enormous causality numbers further ignited America’s anger, leading to the launching of the Atomic bombs against Japan. The first Japanese city to receive such attacks was Hiroshima, an incident that later happened in the city of Nagasaki. At this point Japan was defenseless hence, it had to surrender. Although this marked almost the termination point of this war, its termination opened another page as concerned the war among nations; World War II. This is because; many other nations for example the Soviet Union joined America in the quest to destroy Japan and its supporters. Conclusion In conclusion, the initial attack on the harbor and the aftermath retaliation by the America had many negative impacts than these countries had anticipated. This is because, apart from the massive deaths that resulted fro m such veracious attacks, its impacts are clear even today as concerns the health status of the Japanese citizenry. In addition, the countries wasted many resources in the war, a factor that they could have prevented did they take the peace negotiations seriously. Primary lessons that nations can learn from such a war include need for respect among nations, the need for negotiations when problems arise instead of extreme fights, and the importance of respecting human life. Although this is the case, it is a few nations, which have learnt for such an experience, because of the daily wars between different global communities. D’Amato, Paul. Pearl Harbor, internment, and Hiroshima: historical lessons. Third World Traveler. 2010. Web. thirdworldtraveler.com/Civil_Liberties/Pearl%20Harbor_Internment.html Higgs, Robert. How U.S. Economic Warfare Provoked Japan’s Attack on Pearl Harbor. The Independent Institute, 1 May. 2006. Web. independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=193 0 Mahar, Ted. The battle that ignited America. 2010. Web. aracnet.com/~histgaz/pearlharbor/7dec1941.html McGraw-Hill Companies. Aftermath. Glencoe. 2010. Web. glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/btt/pearl_harbor/aftermath.shtml Martin, James. Pearl Harbor’s place in History. Institute for Historical Review. 2010. Web. ihr.org/jhr/v16/v16n6p-2_Martin.html National Park Service: U.S. Department of the Interior. Arizona Project. 2010. Web. pastfoundation.org/Arizona/PearlHarborAttack.htm Robinson, Bruce. Pearl Harbor: a rude awakening. British Broadcasting Corporation, 5 Nov. 2009. Web. bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/pearl_harbour_01.shtml Rosenberg, Emily. A date will live: Pearl Harbor. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003. Web.15 March. 2010. https://books.google.com/books?id=8QU164elOhUCdq=Pearl+Harbor:+why+Japan+attacked+the+United+Statesprintsec=frontcoversource=inhl=enei=FcCdS5ONJaH00gSwzJXDCgsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=12ved=0CCoQ6AEwCw#v=onepageq=f=false Rymer, Eri c. Attack on Pearl Harbor: events leading to December 7, 1941 and the attack on Pearl Harbor. 2010. Web. historylink101.com/wwII_b-w/pearl_harbor/index.html Wohlstetter, Roberta. Pearl harbor warning and decision. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1962. Web. https://books.google.com/books?id=pO4JxYdXP04Cdq=Pearl+Harbor:how+the+United+States+react+backprintsec=frontcoversource=inhl=enei=m8GdS9OvOaf20gSNlbDDCgsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=11ved=0CCYQ6AEwCg#v=onepageq=f=false

When to Use the Words A, An, and And

When to Use the Words A, An, and And A and an are two forms of the same word. The conjunction and is a different word altogether. Use the  indefinite articles a and an before nouns: a before a noun that begins with a consonant sound (a doctor, a horse, a university); an before a noun that begins with a vowel sound (an envelope, an hour, an umbrella).  And is a coordinating conjunction: use it to join words, phrases, and clauses. Examples Every minute felt like an hour, and every hour felt like a day.Love is not a feeling. Love is an action, an activity. (M. Scott Peck)For lunch, she had an apple, a carrot, and a European oyster.Betty is an honorary member of the Lollipop League.Shyla and I were sitting at a table with an energetic clown and a rowdy little girl. Usage Notes on When to Use A or  An A HistorianPeople worry about whether the correct article is a or an with historian, historic, and a few other words. Most authorities have supported a over an. The traditional rule is that if the h- is sounded, then a is the proper form. . . . This is not a new rule. Even the venerated language authority H.W. Fowler, in the England of 1926, advocated a before historic(al) and humble. (Bryan A. Garner, a. A. Choice Between a or an. Garners Modern American Usage.  Oxford University Press, 2003)A and An Before AbbreviationsA minor complication arises with some abbreviations. Do you write, He received a M.A. degree or an M.A. degree? Do you write, a N.Y. Central spokesman or an N.Y. Central spokesman? The test is how people say or read such designations. M.A. registers with most people as alphabetical letters, not as Master of Arts; hence, an M.A. degree is proper. On the other hand, N.Y. Central is instantly translated by the mind into New York Central; it would not be read as En Wye Central. Therefore, a N.Y. Central spokesman is proper. (Theodore M. Bernstein, The Careful Writer: A Modern Guide to English Usage, Simon Schuster, 1965) Practice Exercise Fill in each blank with either a, an, or and. (a) Writing is just having ______ sheet of paper, ______ pen, ______ not a shadow of ______ idea what you are going to say.(b) ______ good coach is ______ understanding tyrant ______ a hard-headed friend. Answers to Practice Exercises: A, An, And (a) Writing is just having  a  sheet of paper,  a  pen,  and  not a shadow of  an  idea what you are going to say.(b)  A  good coach is  an  understanding tyrant  and  a hard-headed friend.

Financial effects and constraint paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Financial effects and constraint paper - Essay Example A pharmacy can play a significant role in research and development of a hospital so as to come up with new medicines and cures for diseases and thus pose direct completion to pharmaceutical companies with cheaper medicines and other drug related products and small and simple surgical tools. The pharmacy here can provide effective analysis on the development of drugs. These drugs can then be tested on animals or patients in the hospital aiding to lower promotion cost of the developed drugs. Besides, the most obvious effect of a pharmacy on operations management of a hospital is that it can be an additional source of revenue for the hospitals as the patients coming to the hospital are more likely to buy medicines from there. Plus it helps the doctors etc to get medicines quickly rather than having to go anywhere far to get medicines, drugs, or any surgical items they need. This will help speed up operations of the hospital by providing quick service to patients. To facilitate operations management, a pharmacy can evaluate and correctly interpret the complete medication order. To facilitate patient data and its analysis, a pharmacy can play a significant role in evaluation of patient record for potential interactions. This information can be communicated to health Care Professionals who would then accurately forecast demand for new medicinal products. A pharmacist at a pharmacy can better transcribe telephoned orders and other medical information and also deal with buyers and suppliers in a professional manner. A pharmacist at a pharmacy can better advise a doctor on reviewing alternative courses of action, and making decision to resolve drug/therapy problems. Also a pharmacy can work with other departments and committees in the hospital to see what drugs are the most effective ones. The pharmacist has the understanding of drug quality specifications drugs to be procured as he can assess the reliability, price- value, and quality

Spying on Americans by government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Spying on Americans by government - Essay Example The answer lies in one word, control (Boghosian, 34). Dictatorial governments have always sought to have a comprehensive level of surveillance. As a result, they want to be acquainted with what is going on, who is getting-together with whom, what the conversation is about, and what they are planning. With all this, they acquire control over their people. They can discover traitors and insurgents, they can gain access to those who fight or plot against them, and they can put out the strategies of their opponents before they gather adequate momentum to cause a real effect to the country. These reasons have been central to pretty much every domineering regime all through history. It is worth noting that the competences of the Internet, in specific of Internet scrutiny, offer promises beyond the visions of the dictators of yesteryear. Nevertheless, it is not only despots who like surveillance, or reasonably, it is not just those whom we tag as ‘despots’ who like it. It is any person who necessitates more control. These are peo ple who think that things are spinning out of control. It is those apprehensive with ‘public order’. It is those alarmed by ‘protest’. That, dejectedly, points towards all governments currently, even that in the UK (Raban 55). John Yoo defends the NSA actions of surveillance of domestic communication by stating that the 4th amendment ought not to apply to military coupled with intelligence agencies. Furthermore, he tries to claim that the "mistakes" are healthy in any society. Therefore, law enforcements are allowed to make mistakes. This is seen when he states that local law enforcement makes these faults too. Police seek licenses for the wrong guy, implement a hunt in the wrong house, capture the wrong suspect, and even shoot defenseless suspects. We consent these mistakes because we comprehend that no law-enforcement organizations can successfully defend our communities from

Intermediate Microeconomics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Intermediate Microeconomics - Assignment Example EX, Y = % change in quantity demanded of a product X/ % change in price of product Y. = {(400+450)/ (5+4)}* (4-5)/ (450-400) = (850/9)*(-1/50) = 94.44/-0.02 = -4.722. The negative coefficient depicts an increase in price of computer will result to 4.72 percentages in decrease in demand for printers. Income elasticity of demand assesses the "sensitivity of the demand for a good to a change in the income of the consumers" (Mankiw 97). Ed = (A1+A2)/ (Q1+Q2)*(change in Q/change in A) = (10,000+15,000)/ (20+18)* (18-20)/ (15,000-10,000) = (25,000/38)*(-2/5,000) = (657.89*0.0004) = -0.263. As the consumers income increases the demand of the commodity decrease even though the price remains the same. This implies the goods are of inferior quality thus when income increases consumers opt for better quality products (Mankiw 109). Regressing the logs of independent variables Px, Py and I results to a linear function of the amount needed and the independent variables (Mankiw 123). The percent change in quantity demanded is determined by the coefficient of the income I, price of the product X and price of the product

Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now - Essay Example Both the works tend to depict the way civilization finds itself alienated in the wilderness. In broad terms, the main similarity between the works is seen in the way the so-called civilized people have got an uncivilized primitive in them that comes out when they reach the wilderness even for a short period of time. For example, in the Heart of Darkness, Marlow first sees the shores of Africa with a sense of fear and dislike. As Marlow travels into the jungle, he develops the feeling that he was getting savage. Thus, as Kesselring states, one gets the idea that the man still possesses the primordial urge to be the same barbaric humans of the jungle; for example, Marlow describes a Kurtz who is free from any restraints, and who unleashes his primordial urge to kill and to enjoy total freedom. There Marlow sees a large number of heads displayed on posts that shows the kind of primitive life Kurtz lived (24-25). Here, it is worth trying to identify the reason behind the madness of both the Kurtz, and there comes the startling realization that it is the result of their inability to come into terms with the native culture and lifestyle. For example, in the movie, one can see a Kurtz telling Willard about the Special Forces going into the village inoculating the children for polio, followed by the visit of communists who cut children’s inoculated hands off. This basic and barbaric wilderness makes Kurtz insane, and soon, he becomes a savage himself. In total, one can say that in both the cases, there is the tendency to show that the European-African and American-Vietnam conflicts symbolize the conflict between the civilized and the savage. In both the cases, there is the realization that civilization is the result of the complex web of rules, regulations and codes of conduct that the modern societies have developed. In addition is the acceptance that there is a savage in every civilized human being. Thirdly, in

Discretion Granted to National Courts in Relation to the EU Legal Essay

Discretion Granted to National Courts in Relation to the EU Legal Order - Essay Example The body that was named as the European Court of Justice (ECJ) that enables the national courts to refer to it. The preliminary reference procedure has been essential in designing the fundamental principles of the national legal system, the unity of the member countries, and the development and maintenance of the national laws. In Article 234, the Court has the powers to give preliminary rulings in a request from the national courts. The preliminary rulings might be about the interpretation of the Treaty, the legality and the interpretation of the actions of the member countries and the European Central Bank. The national courts have therefore a vital role to play in the administration and how the community law is implemented. However, the European Union Treaty does not precisely define â€Å"the national court or tribunal†. Nevertheless, it is vital to know that the national laws of the member states do not depend upon the definition of the tribunal or national courts by the European Court of Justice. The Court has the role to define the national laws of a given community. ... Moreover, different cases shall be looked upon in the preliminary ruling procedure (Arnull, 1989). The Right and Obligation to Refer Cases The case of Vaasen- Gobbel came up with the decision to define the national court in order to find a way to refer to the ECJ. The case was held by stating that any body making a reference to the European Court of Justice must satisfy a number of criteria: It first need to be established by law, must have a permanent existence, it must be in a position to practice a lasting jurisdiction, must work under the rules of the Community law and its procedures and should apply the rule of law. The Court therefore had to extend the stated criteria to apply to the national courts so that they would be independent (Komarek, 2005). Several other cases including the De Coster Case, enabled the college which previously had the powers concerning the local tax proceedings and never operated on its own nor made its own decisions regarding the process later satisfie d the criteria to operate as an independent body. The De Coster and CLIFIT cases demonstrate the national courts that have the powers to give judgment in relation to article 234 of the European Court of Justice (Komarek, 2007). Even though the case regarding the definition of the court or tribunal that satisfies the previously defined criteria for an independent body is at times inconsistent and therefore provides a room for some critics to disagree on which bodies are to refer cases to the ECJ. However, in order to solve this problem of disagreements, the European Court is coming up with the preliminary reference procedure that would be used by all judicial bodies while they might be dealing with cases involving the Community law (Maher, 1994). On the facts of the case, the De Coster and

Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now - Essay Example Both the works tend to depict the way civilization finds itself alienated in the wilderness. In broad terms, the main similarity between the works is seen in the way the so-called civilized people have got an uncivilized primitive in them that comes out when they reach the wilderness even for a short period of time. For example, in the Heart of Darkness, Marlow first sees the shores of Africa with a sense of fear and dislike. As Marlow travels into the jungle, he develops the feeling that he was getting savage. Thus, as Kesselring states, one gets the idea that the man still possesses the primordial urge to be the same barbaric humans of the jungle; for example, Marlow describes a Kurtz who is free from any restraints, and who unleashes his primordial urge to kill and to enjoy total freedom. There Marlow sees a large number of heads displayed on posts that shows the kind of primitive life Kurtz lived (24-25). Here, it is worth trying to identify the reason behind the madness of both the Kurtz, and there comes the startling realization that it is the result of their inability to come into terms with the native culture and lifestyle. For example, in the movie, one can see a Kurtz telling Willard about the Special Forces going into the village inoculating the children for polio, followed by the visit of communists who cut children’s inoculated hands off. This basic and barbaric wilderness makes Kurtz insane, and soon, he becomes a savage himself. In total, one can say that in both the cases, there is the tendency to show that the European-African and American-Vietnam conflicts symbolize the conflict between the civilized and the savage. In both the cases, there is the realization that civilization is the result of the complex web of rules, regulations and codes of conduct that the modern societies have developed. In addition is the acceptance that there is a savage in every civilized human being. Thirdly, in

Forensic Accountants as Fraud Buggers Case Study

Forensic Accountants as Fraud Buggers - Case Study Example A forensic accountant must be equipped with investigative skills. These skills are important in gathering, evaluating and analyzing accounting data and audited information from business organizations (Ramaswamy, 2010). It is through these skills that a forensic accountant will be able to determine possible discrepancies and loopholes within audited accounting data and information (Carnes & Gierlasinski, 2001; DiGabriele, 2008). The effectiveness of a forensic accountant is measured by the ability to apply investigative skills to interpret accounting information and financial evidence to back misappropriation of resources within a business organization or company (Fleming, Pearson, Riley & Richard, 2008). Fraudsters within companies and business organizations often devise methods of embezzlement or fraud that are hard to detect. It is in this regard that a forensic accountant must have effective investigative skills to detect accounting problems which would not be determined by ordina ry auditing and accounting approaches (Bawaneh, 2011). Investigative skills also allow a forensic accountant to adhere to the ethics and regulations that govern investigations of criminal cases. Computing or technical skills are required for an effective forensic accountant. This is due to the fact that contemporary companies and business environments have adopted and implemented information technology methods in accounting and finance (Fleming, Pearson, Riley & Richard, 2008).... This is due to the fact that contemporary companies and business environments have adopted and implemented information technology methods in accounting and finance (Fleming, Pearson, Riley & Richard, 2008). Through computing skills, a forensic accountant is able to retrieve, analyzed and report financial evidence in electronic formats (Topping, 2008). More importantly a forensic accountant must be able to apply computer software and applications and other computer assisted tools to detect fraud or embezzlement of resources within companies (Fleming, Pearson, Riley & Richard, 2008). Modern business organizations are characterized by what is referred to as white collar crime in which technology is used to defraud or embezzle resources and hide evidence. It is in this sense that computing skills of a forensic accountant become significant (Carnes & Gierlasinski, 2001). Litigation skills area also required for effective forensic accountants. These skills are significant in the role of a forensic accountant as an arbitrator or mediator in legal accounting problems. These skills are also important because they enable forensic accountants to be effective experts and credible consultants who could be used by companies to detect and report fraud or embezzlement of resources. Through litigation skills, forensic accountants are able to evaluate damages and losses and find ways of resolving disputes among the disputants (Topping, 2008). Other important skills of a forensic accountant include analytical and forensic skills. Effective forensic accountants must have analytical skills that will empower them to determine the importance of the gathered financial evidence in reporting fraud (DiGabriele, 2008). Through analytical skills, forensic accountants analyze and professionally

Arthur Miller uses Alfieri for Dramatic Essay Example for Free

Arthur Miller uses Alfieri for Dramatic Essay In the second part of his speech, Alfieri brings about a notion of tragedy, Another lawyer, quite differently dressed, heard the same complaint and sat there as powerless as I, and watched it run its bloody course. This gives the audience a hint as to what is going to come ahead. The fact that Alfieri speaks in the third person indicates that the calamity has already happened and he was powerless to stop it. The idea of fate and destiny and destiny is also brought about. When Eddie, the protagonist of the play is introduced the scenario of a typical Greek tragedy is set up. Eddie is a good person but he has a flaw; his obsessive love for his niece, Catherine. If he is then put in an appropriate circumstance where his weakness is tested, he is likely to encounter tragic circumstances. The next time Alfieri addresses the audience the story has already been put into context. The audience are unaware of Eddies love for his niece and he could be easily mistaken as an over protective father. Eddie pays for her typing lessons and has ambitions for her to rise to a different class. You aint all the girls. He is proud of her looks, yet concerned she will attract the wrong sort of men. The heads are turning like windmills. In addition Eddie finds it difficult to admit that Catherine has become an independent woman. I guess I just never figured that you would grow up. This Alfieri soliloquy helps the plot to progress. Again he uses the past tense, reminding us that he is recalling something which has taken place. Eddie is described as good and hardworking man, the audience can therefore sympathise and even like him. However Eddie has a fate and destiny which he cannot control. Towards the end of this short appearance, Alfieri notifies us on the arrival of the cousins and the play again unfolds. Subsequently we meet Alfieri who again mentions Eddies destiny. Eddie Carbone had never expected to have a destiny. Yet again we are given the impression that Eddie is a good person and is someone you would expect to have a fairly normal life. A man works, raises his family, goes bowling, eats, gets old, and then he dies. However we are reminded as Alfieri closes his speech that Eddie does have a flaw and as a result there will be devastating consequences. As a result of which, the audience are left in suspense and uncertainty as to what is to come ahead. There was a trouble that would not go away. His next appearance is one of the most important in the play. Alfieri begins by saying how he is acquainted with Eddie and his family, which helps to put his relationship with the husky, middle-aged longshoreman into context. He then reveals that Eddie came to visit him in the first instance. I remember him now as he walked through my doorway his eyes were like tunnels. Which indicates that Eddie was out of control and looked fierce. Alternatively this could make the audience feel concerned towards his actions and what is to come next. It is the first time in the play that Alfieri transforms from being a narrator to actually a part of the action. As an actor taking part in the action, both his language and behaviour are more formal. In terms of language, Alfieri is more articulate and elevated; his sentences consist of professionalism and throughout this scene he is the voice of reason and sanity as opposed to the prejudiced and hurt Eddie. However Eddie is aggravated by Alfieris clear and focused attitude towards the law, as Eddie cannot differentiate between the law and the justice of the vendetta. But the law is very specific The law does not.

Impact of the US Media on Public Attitudes

Impact of the US Media on Public Attitudes The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and â€Å"work the ref† until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faà §ade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resul ting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to change public opinion, as Phillip Knightley explains: [S]izable minorities in both the United States and Britain were against such a war and although the mainstream media largely ignored their protests, these had to be dampened down unless they gained strength. Hussein had to be demonised. He was painted as being ruthless, another Hitler, a fanatic, deranged, a psychopath, hated by his own people and despised in the Arab world. Further, from the moment his troops had arrived in Kuwait they had committed unspeakable atrocities (Knightley 2001, p. 486). In addition to the restriction of information the media echoed government messages demonising Hussein and his actions. In this respect opposition to the conflict became tantamount to support for Saddam Hussein. Opposition was deemed unpatriotic. By ignoring public protest and presenting this interpretation of events the American public were being shamed into non-verbal opposition and the opinions of proponents of the war were bolstered by the apparent large-scale acceptance of their opinions, as witnessed through the media. Such a perception of events in conflict is at odds with the reality highlighted by Flynt in this and the subsequent conflict in Afghanistan: [W]e had no media with the troops in Afghanistan. Hardly anyone realized that most western reporters were being kept far from the front lines. The war news was being censored. We were being spoon fed commentary and military press releases masquerading as hard news. That was not only an insult to the American people, it was a huge disservice to news coverage in general (Flynt 2004, pp. 162-163). On a subject as emotive as conflict one would expect a mass media to be rife with opinions and conflicting views, representing the fears and worries of a diverse American public. The reverse was in fact true. The media demonstrated in the most tense of times that not only could and would it shape the perception of the conflict to the American people; it was also willing to gloss over public attitudes and expressions of dissent in a misled quest for patriotism in a manner that had historical precursors: In joining forces to sell the Cold War to the American people, government and industry professionals clearly knew they violated precepts of a free and independent press, but they justified it to themselves as a necessary patriotic duty in a fearsome age (Bernhard 1999, p. 179). Military conflict is one arena where the influence of the media is enhanced as the American public thirst for information. However, it also appears to be the occasion when the media is most likely to filter the information it provides. As with military confrontations the influence of media affects not only US public but also beyond. As Edward Herman and Robert McChesney point out the American model for global media is the likely ideal for other world media, as is, arguably, the democratic system of government (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 137). This also includes cultural infiltration of the American way of life with publics of other nations. Herman and McChesney go so far as to state that: We also think it very important to recognize that media effects are inseparable from broader economic, political, and cultural influences, such as external military occupation and rule, foreign indirect rule through sponsored authoritarian regimes†¦ military and police aid and training, economic and financial linkages, and tourism and educational exchanges, all of which are at least as imbalanced as media exports and imports (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 155). In a mass media world, where the reach of information is global, perhaps one should consider not only the influence on the American public, but also the worldwide cultural influence. The impact of the American media on public attitudes and behaviour is great. The media have an unparalleled hold over information dissemination to the wider public and the message, according to many commentators, is all too readily accepted. However the messages portrayed are not the result of individual reportage and endeavour on the part of journalists. The mass media is shaped by government and commercial interests that combine to reduce diverse outlets to the same messages. In times of heightened national interest in the news agenda, such as during conflict, the process is more restricted than normal. In essence the media present the contradiction of a mass, diverse organism that through the widespread regurgitation of similar messages, lends credence to those messages, influencing the publics judgement as to their infallibility. Bibliography Articles Jordan, Donald, Newspaper Effects on Policy Preferences, Political Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 57, 1993, pp. 191-204. Books Bernhard, Nancy, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947-1960, (Cambridge: 1999). Cook, Timothy, Governing with the News. The News Media as a Political Institution, (London: 1998) Flynt, Larry, Sex, Lies and Politics. The Naked truth about Bush, Democracy and the War on Terror, (London: 2004). Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert, The Global Media. The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism, (London: 1999). Knightley, Phillip, The First Casualty. The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo, (London: 2001). Taylor, Philip, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945, (London: 1997). The impact of the media on public opinion, in countries across the globe, including the United States, is the subject of a growing body of academic and public discourse. The media has grown to become the main conduit for the publics understanding of world events. If the media can be said to provide wide-ranging and balanced coverage of news events there seems little or no problem of negative influence on public opinion. However, the belief in the neutrality of media coverage is not without its critics and the manipulation of news affects the attitudes and behaviours of those it is aimed at, namely the wider American public. The following argument will espouse the view that the media in the current period of time do have an influence on public attitudes and behaviour. Furthermore, the media are in turn influenced by external factors, which can result in the manipulation of public opinion for means preferable to the ruling establishment and business. Before embarking on a definitive answer to this question one must firmly establish definitions that will be used throughout the essay. The first issue is whether or not we can identify and employ the term media as if it were a single entity. This essay will adopt the position that media in this circumstance pertains to the news media of electronic and print journalism. There are of course vast differences between the coverage of news networks such as CNN and newspaper publication such as The New York Times. However, the argument for the all-encompassing use of the term is persuasive. Timothy Cook, for example, explains that the strong similarities of news processes and news content across modalities (television, newspapers, and newsmagazines), size of organization, national or local audiences, etc., point to the news media as a single institution (Cook 1998, p. 84). Thus, for the purposes of this analysis the term media will be taken to represent a monolithic structure encompassing b roadcast, print and digital formats. On a further point of clarity it is necessary to establish the meaning of political attitudes and behaviours. Without resorting to a dictionary definition the distinction here appears to be with peoples thoughts, private or public, and actions, such as the physical act of voting. The measuring of public opinion is complex and has been researched and discussed thoroughly elsewhere. This essay will utilise the existing literature to establish that the media does have an effect on public attitudes and will as such go on to analyse the nature of the influences. The reliance upon the media for information is a key factor in understanding its influence. In his discussion of the issue Timothy Cook states that in the United States, the privately owned news media are relied upon to provide communication from the elite to the public, as well as within the public as a whole (Cook 1998, p. 82). This reliance places the media in a powerful position of mediating not only between the American public but also between the citizens and the state. Despite the multiplicity of news outlets the content, as noted above also by Cook, is often largely similar. The effect of dominant stories being emitted across the media spectrum is one of influencing the political and other attitudes and behaviour of the American public. In his article on the subject Donald Jordan reaches the conclusion that in both newspaper items and television broadcasts experts and commentators wield heavy influence (Jordan 1993, p. 191). The crux of their influence comes in the empowering of the media, by the public, who tend to place a great deal of weight upon the importance of the news stories that reach the front page or television screen. In turn the political importance placed upon this by the public comes as the public seek to judge the stance of politicians on the issues in the media, regardless of whether the said politicians are linked to the news event (Cook 1998, p. 126). It is this perceived influence that in reverse drives politicians to respond even if the issue does not react strongly. In addition to placing a degree of importance on news stories that reach them via the media, there is also reason to suggest that the American public believe what the media say about an issue. Indeed, Hustler publisher Larry Flynt argues that many Americans buy into the newss propaganda on a nightly basis (Flynt 2004, p. 183). If one takes buy into to mean agree with or accept as fact the influence of the media becomes apparent, [t]he reporter is the recorder of government but he is also a participant (Cater in Cook 1998, p. 1). The media, under these assumptions, cannot be viewed as the benign distributors of news, but also the selectors of news and the formers of opinion. The main argument against the above description is that of active audience analysis. This approach contends that audiences routinely interpret corporate messages in ways that suit their own needs, not that of media proprietors or advertisers. However, this argument itself is disputed by those suggesting this dismisses the cumulative effect of repetitive media messages (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 194). The traditional argument is that the media serves the public well as a force for their democratic right to know (Taylor 1997, p. 1). The American media, and indeed the media of other western democracies, is heralded as a fundamental component of the virtuosity of free speech. In the conflicts against Iraq the rhetoric in the media contrasted the free speech of the media in democratic countries against the state-run media of Husseins Iraq. The irony here is the negated recognition of media censorship by western countries during times of conflict. More worryingly this censorship can often be identified as self-censorship as media organisations seek to remain with the official government and military information channels that dominate the flow of news from the battlefield. In this atmosphere the publics right to know appears to be more akin to the public right to know what the authorities want it to know. Professionalism is also enlisted to support the assertion that the media is acting upon the best interests of the public. The argument purported suggests the individual journalists have professional pride in their work and a moral work ethic that counters efforts to influence their output. However, this does not appear to be the case and tainted news stories emerge that influence the public perception of events. The lack of diversity in news sources, as previously referred to in Cooks account, does not reflect the multiplicity of interpretations that professionalism and personal interpretation by individual reporters would suggest. Despite any well-meaning intentions the most used sources of information by journalists are official channels. Journalists also work within the remit of the editorial policies of their institutions and other dominating factors that shape the news agenda. With conformity of opinion and repetition of news stories, combined with a public willingness to place greater emphasis on the importance of events in the news, the power of the American media to influence the public attitudes and behaviour towards issues becomes apparent. The editorial policies of the media appear to be free-chosen ideals, shaped by the political leanings of those in charge. In the case of newspapers, such overt political leanings are accepted if not expected. However, even with such freedom of choice one can argue that the conservative elements of the American establishment dominate the media agenda. Larry Flynt argues the media is dominated by these influences, which are able to insert their message into the media machine: Where did these ideas come from, and why are they so popular? The answers lie in our newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, and in the people who run them. On the right, you have media piranhas who lie, distort, and â€Å"work the ref† until our heads spin. On the left, you have press poodles who either just do what theyre told, or are too reasonable and polite to compete with ranting, conservative lunatics (Flynt 2004, p. 148). With this in mind one can argue the more conservative elements in politics are managing to portray their version of events. If this is the case and the public place greater faith in those messages purported by the media, then the political attitudes and behaviour of the American public can be said to be influenced. The re-election of George Bush, for example, would appear to substantiate such assertions. The increased commercialisation of the industry also plays a part in the influencing of public opinion. As has been noted the maturing of commercial broadcasting not only substitutes entertainment for public service; the U.S. experience suggests that maturation brings with it a decline in variety of viewpoints and increased protection of establishment interests (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 143). News has to be important and interesting, for the viewing public to remain engaged. This brings about the introduction of value-laden assumptions to the selection process as news is filtered by editorial staff to provide entertaining news to keep ratings, and hence advertising revenue, high. Once more the unfiltered, diverse media is actually revealed to be both ideologically and economically sieved to produce a product to engage the public. Any discrepancy from this formula can prove troublesome, as Bernhard asserts, because [p]ointing to the social costs of capitalism is still mistaken fo r disloyalty, or for psychosis (Bernhard 1999, p. 178). The same is true for any criticism of a war effort, with the attackers facing the wrath of media and public criticism if messages are deemed unpatriotic. It is also argued that commercialisation leads to the isolation of the public from the political system. This view is put forward by Herman and McChesney: [T]he commercialisation of broadcasting has further weakened democracy by delocalizing (nationalizing) politics, because, as Gerald Benjamin notes, appeals made in one place or to one group may be immediately communicated regionally or nationally. Thus the distributive politics of particular appeals to particular groups can no longer be made by candidates without their first calculating the possible effects on other groups in their electoral coalitions. The individual is more isolated, political participation tends to be reduced, and the idea of collective social action is weakened (Herman and McChesney 1997, p. 147). The political system is altered by the mass reach of media. The individual is weakened and their political attitudes and behaviours are thus altered. Political action at a local level by determined groups is less possible now and the bigger picture much be considered. While the political power of the individual is weakened so too in the breadth of knowledge they attain from the media. Commercialisation and the modern media system have led to the trivialisation of news. Events are edited and selected to appeal as entertainment. The illusion of an informed American public appears justified by the mention of events from afar but, asks Phil Taylor, to what extent this can be said to be the case is debateable: In reality, does the practice of covering world events in twelve column inches or a three-minute news segment encourage prejudice rather than empathy, national pride rather than international harmony, and emotional rather than rational judgements? (Taylor 1997, pp. 1-2). The answer would appear to be yes to each, as while the public are presented with the faà §ade of a multifaceted media machine the content is still highly selective. The outlets may be numerous but the depth is lacking. As the media world moves evermore to the instantaneous and 24-hour news culture the demand to produce a vast quantity of visually-orientated images quickly supersedes any depth of understanding the American public could seek to ascertain. The appeal to emotion does little to stimulate educated discussion upon issues. Instead, if the carefully selected news agenda wishes it can appeal to the public to behave in a way favourable to the governments wishes. For example, during the 1999 Kosovo Conflict the media in the United States and Great Britain played great attention to the human interest stories of Albanian refugees to stir public sympathy for intervention on their behalf. However, the irony was that the chosen form of intervention, solely from the air, while resul ting in no politically damaging allied casualties, did little to stem the flow of refugees. Having referred to conflict one is also inclined to believe that the above interpretation of the media in the context of war may differ. When one takes into account the negative connotations assigned to the medias role during the Vietnam War the relationship would at first appear antagonistic and preclude any bowing on the part of the media to government will. However, the trend for assigning journalists to press pools in the 1990-1 Gulf War demonstrated an effective way of embedding journalists, not only physically, but also mentally with American forces. Cooperation between the media and the government manifested itself in ignoring and attempting to